Perspectives on Psychological Disorders

 

History of Psychological Disorders

Ideas about psychological disorders have changed considerably throughout history.

In the past, people often did not understand mental illness from a medical or psychological perspective. Unusual thoughts, emotions, or behaviors could be explained through supernatural, religious, or moral beliefs.

People experiencing mental health problems were sometimes described using harmful terms such as “crazy,” “insane,” or “mad.” These labels were often based on misunderstanding rather than scientific knowledge.

Stigma and Discrimination

Negative language and misunderstandings about mental illness have contributed to stigma and discrimination.

Stigma means negative attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes about a person or group.

People with psychological disorders have historically experienced:

• Social rejection

• Isolation

• Discrimination

• Mistreatment

• Being blamed for their symptoms

• Being treated as dangerous or incapable

Although our understanding of mental illness has improved, stigma can still affect people with psychological disorders today.

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PTSD and Changing Understandings

Our understanding of psychological disorders has also changed over time.

For example, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is now recognized as a trauma- and stressor-related disorder.

During earlier wars, similar symptoms were described using different terms.

Shell Shock

During World War I, many soldiers experienced symptoms after exposure to combat, including:

• Anxiety

• Nightmares

• Flashbacks or distressing memories

• Trembling

• Sleep problems

• Emotional distress

• Difficulties functioning

These symptoms were commonly referred to as “shell shock.”

The understanding of these symptoms changed over time. What was once viewed in different ways eventually became part of a broader scientific understanding of trauma and PTSD.

Key point: The symptoms of psychological distress may have existed for a long time, but the way society understood, named, and classified them has changed.

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Modern Biological and Psychological Views

Today, psychological disorders are generally understood through multiple perspectives rather than one single explanation.

Biological Perspective

The biological perspective examines factors such as:

• Genetics

• Brain structure

• Brain function

• Neurotransmitters

• Hormones

• Other biological processes

Some psychological disorders have a significant heritable component, meaning genetic differences contribute to differences in people's vulnerability to developing the disorder.

Heritability

Heritability refers to the proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be associated with genetic differences.

Some disorders have higher estimated heritability than others.

However, high heritability does not mean that a disorder is completely genetic or inevitable. Environmental experiences and other factors can also influence whether a person develops a disorder.

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Psychological Perspectives

Psychological perspectives examine how factors such as:

• Thoughts

• Emotions

• Learning

• Behavior

• Personality

• Early experiences

• Relationships

• Coping strategies

may contribute to psychological disorders.

Different psychological approaches may therefore explain the same disorder in different ways.

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The Diathesis-Stress Model

The diathesis-stress model is used to understand how psychological disorders can develop through an interaction between vulnerability and stress.

Diathesis

A diathesis is an underlying vulnerability or predisposition to developing a psychological disorder.

It may involve:

• Genetic factors

• Biological factors

• Psychological factors

• Previous experiences

Stress

Stress refers to environmental or psychological factors that may trigger or contribute to the development of symptoms.

Examples include:

• Trauma

• Abuse

• Major life changes

• Loss

• Chronic stress

• Difficult social circumstances

The Basic Idea

Diathesis + Stress → Increased risk of developing a psychological disorder

A person may have a vulnerability without developing a disorder. Likewise, experiencing stress does not automatically mean that someone will develop a psychological disorder.

The model emphasizes that biological and psychological/environmental factors can interact.

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Key Takeaways

1. Historical views: Mental illness was often misunderstood and sometimes explained through supernatural, religious, or moral beliefs.

2. Language matters: Terms such as “crazy” or “insane” have contributed to stigma and discrimination.

3. PTSD: Symptoms now associated with PTSD were described differently in the past, including as “shell shock” during World War I.

4. Modern views: Psychological disorders are understood using biological, psychological, social, and environmental perspectives.

5. Heritability: Some disorders have a strong genetic component, but heritability does not mean that a disorder is inevitable.

6. Diathesis-stress model: Psychological disorders can result from an interaction between an underlying vulnerability and stressful experiences.

7. Multiple factors: There is usually no single explanation for why a person develops a psychological disorder.

Perspectives on Psychological Disorders

 

1. Supernatural Perspectives

Historically, people often believed that mental illness was caused by supernatural forces that were not scientifically understood.

Possible explanations included:

• Demonic possession

• Black magic

• Spiritual curses

• Other supernatural or religious explanations

People experiencing unusual behavior or psychological symptoms were often viewed as possessed or spiritually affected rather than mentally ill.

Historical Examples

• Dancing mania: Episodes in which groups of people reportedly danced uncontrollably for extended periods.

• European convent frenzies: Historical reports of unusual behaviors occurring among groups of nuns in convents.

These examples show how psychological and behavioral symptoms were sometimes interpreted through supernatural beliefs rather than medical or psychological explanations.

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2. Biological Perspectives

The biological perspective explains psychological disorders in terms of biological processes within the body and brain.

Possible biological factors include:

• Genetics: A person's genes can increase their vulnerability to certain psychological disorders.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the brain may play a role in some disorders.

• Brain structure: Differences or abnormalities in brain structures may contribute to psychological disorders.

• Brain function: Changes in how different areas of the brain function may also be involved.

Genetics and Psychological Disorders

Genetics can have a significant influence on the likelihood of developing some disorders.

For example, schizophrenia has a much higher concordance rate among identical twins than among less closely related individuals. Estimates often place the risk for an identical twin of a person with schizophrenia at around 48%.

However, genetics do not mean that a person is guaranteed to develop a disorder. Other biological, psychological, and environmental factors can also influence whether a disorder develops.

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3. The Diathesis-Stress Model

The diathesis-stress model combines biological and psychosocial explanations for psychological disorders.

Diathesis

A diathesis is an underlying vulnerability or predisposition to developing a psychological disorder.

This vulnerability may come from factors such as:

• Genetics

• Biology

• Personality

• Early experiences

Stress

Stress refers to an environmental, psychological, or life event that can contribute to triggering a disorder.

Examples might include:

• Trauma

• Major life changes

• Abuse

• Loss

• Chronic stress

How the Model Works

The basic idea is:

Vulnerability (diathesis) + Stress → Possible development of a psychological disorder

A person may have a biological or psychological vulnerability but never develop the disorder unless significant stress or other contributing factors occur.

Key Point

The diathesis-stress model shows that psychological disorders are often not caused by one single factor. Instead, biological vulnerability and environmental or psychological experiences can interact.

Quick Revision

Perspective	Main Explanation
Supernatural	Mental illness was historically attributed to possession, curses, magic, or other supernatural forces.
Biological	Disorders may be influenced by genetics, neurotransmitters, and brain structure or function.
Diathesis-Stress	A person's underlying vulnerability may interact with stressful experiences to contribute to the development of a disorder.

Diagnosing and Classifying Psychological Disorders

 

What is the DSM?

DSM stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

The DSM is an important tool used to diagnose and classify mental health disorders. It provides health professionals with common guidelines for identifying and describing psychological disorders.

Who Uses the DSM?

The DSM is mainly designed for health professionals, including:

• Psychologists

• Psychiatrists

• Other qualified mental health professionals

It is primarily used in the United States, although it is also widely referenced internationally.

Purpose of the DSM

The DSM provides a classification system and diagnostic criteria for mental health disorders. It helps professionals:

• Identify symptoms of psychological disorders.

• Classify disorders into different categories.

• Use consistent diagnostic criteria.

• Communicate clearly with other professionals.

• Support appropriate assessment and treatment planning.

Versions of the DSM

The current major edition is the DSM-5-TR (Text Revision), which was published in 2022.

The original DSM-5 was published in 2013. The DSM-5-TR updated some of the information and diagnostic descriptions while keeping the basic classification system of the DSM-5.

Examples of Disorders Classified in the DSM

The DSM includes many categories of psychological disorders, including:

• Anxiety disorders

• Depressive disorders

• Bipolar and related disorders

• Trauma- and stressor-related disorders

• Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

• Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

• Personality disorders

• Substance-related and addictive disorders

• Eating disorders

• Neurodevelopmental disorders

Key Point to Remember

The DSM is a diagnostic and classification guide. It gives mental health professionals standardized criteria that can help them determine whether a person's symptoms meet the criteria for a particular psychological disorder.

Easy-Read Notes: Stages of Human Development

 

Lifespan development studies how people grow and change from conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, aging, and death.

Development includes three main areas: physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development.

Physical development means changes in the body, brain, senses, motor skills, health, and aging.

Cognitive development means changes in learning, memory, attention, language, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.

Psychosocial development means changes in emotions, personality, identity, relationships, and social behavior.

Development can be influenced by both nature and nurture. Nature means biology and genetics. Nurture means environment, culture, relationships, learning, and life experiences.

Lifespan theories help explain how people develop. Some theories focus on thinking, some focus on emotions and identity, and others focus on moral development.

Piaget studied how children's thinking changes as they grow. Erikson studied social and emotional challenges across life. Kohlberg studied how moral reasoning develops.

Human development happens in stages, such as prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and late adulthood.

Prenatal development begins before birth. Infancy and childhood involve rapid growth, attachment, language, movement, and learning.

Adolescence includes puberty, identity development, more independence, and changes in thinking, emotions, and relationships.

Adulthood includes work, relationships, family roles, health changes, personal goals, and continued learning. Development does not stop when someone becomes an adult.

 Influences on development include genetics, parenting, culture, school, friends, health, stress, trauma, nutrition, safety, and social support.

Easy-Read Notes: Memory, Thinking, Intelligence, Motivation, and Emotion

 

Memory is how the brain takes in, stores, and later uses information. It helps us learn, recognize people, remember experiences, and use knowledge.

Memory has three basic steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding means getting information in. Storage means keeping it. Retrieval means bringing it back when needed.

Different parts of the brain help with memory. The hippocampus is important for forming new memories, and the amygdala helps connect memories with emotions.

Memory is not perfect. People can forget, mix up details, remember things differently over time, or have trouble forming new memories after injury or illness.

Ways to improve memory include paying attention, practicing over time, connecting new ideas to things you already know, using reminders, sleeping well, and testing yourself.

Cognition means thinking. It includes attention, memory, language, problem solving, decision-making, imagination, and understanding information.

Language helps people communicate thoughts, feelings, needs, and ideas. It also helps us organize information and think about the past, present, and future.

Problem solving means using thinking skills to find an answer or reach a goal. People may use step-by-step rules, shortcuts, trial and error, or creative thinking.

A problem can be easier to solve when we define it clearly, break it into smaller steps, and check whether our solution actually works.

Intelligence means the ability to learn, reason, solve problems, adapt to new situations, and use knowledge. It can show up in school, work, relationships, creativity, and everyday life.

Creativity means making something new, useful, or meaningful. Creative thinking can help people solve problems in original ways.

Measures of intelligence, such as IQ tests, try to estimate certain thinking skills. These tests can be useful, but they do not measure every kind of ability or every person's full potential.

Intelligence is influenced by both biology and environment. Genes, brain development, education, health, culture, opportunity, and life experiences can all matter.

Motivation is what energizes and directs behavior. It helps explain why people start actions, keep going, and work toward goals.

Motivation can come from inside a person, like interest or personal values, or from outside, like rewards, grades, money, praise, or consequences.

Hunger and eating are affected by the body and the mind. Biology, hormones, habits, culture, stress, emotions, food availability, and social situations can all influence eating.

Eating is not only about needing energy. People may also eat because of comfort, routine, celebration, boredom, stress, or the people around them.

Emotion includes feelings, body reactions, thoughts, and facial or behavioral expressions. Emotions can help people respond to danger, connect with others, and make decisions.

Emotions are shaped by both the body and the way we interpret situations. Two people can experience the same event differently because they understand it differently.

Emotion, memory, thinking, and intelligence are connected. Emotions can affect what we notice and remember, memory helps us use past experiences, thinking helps us solve problems, and intelligence helps us learn and adapt.

Memory formation means making new memories. First, information is encoded. Then it is stored. Later, it can be retrieved when we need to remember it.

Memory reconstruction means memories can change when we recall them. The brain does not always replay memories perfectly; it can rebuild them using details, guesses, emotions, and later information.

Retrieval means bringing a memory back into awareness. Forgetting can happen when information was not encoded well, when it fades, when other memories interfere, or when the brain has trouble accessing it.

Important brain areas for memory include the hippocampus, which helps form new memories; the amygdala, which connects emotion with memory; and the cerebellum, which helps with learned skills and habits.

Human thinking uses attention, memory, language, concepts, problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making. Thinking can be helpful, but it can also be affected by shortcuts, assumptions, and bias.

Intelligence includes learning from experience, reasoning, solving problems, adapting to new situations, and using knowledge. Intelligence tests measure some abilities, but not every strength a person has.

Easy-Read Notes: Memory, Thinking, Intelligence, Motivation, and Emotion

 

Memory is how the brain takes in, stores, and later uses information. It helps us learn, recognize people, remember experiences, and use knowledge.

Memory has three basic steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding means getting information in. Storage means keeping it. Retrieval means bringing it back when needed.

Different parts of the brain help with memory. The hippocampus is important for forming new memories, and the amygdala helps connect memories with emotions.

Memory is not perfect. People can forget, mix up details, remember things differently over time, or have trouble forming new memories after injury or illness.

Ways to improve memory include paying attention, practicing over time, connecting new ideas to things you already know, using reminders, sleeping well, and testing yourself.

Cognition means thinking. It includes attention, memory, language, problem solving, decision-making, imagination, and understanding information.

Language helps people communicate thoughts, feelings, needs, and ideas. It also helps us organize information and think about the past, present, and future.

Problem solving means using thinking skills to find an answer or reach a goal. People may use step-by-step rules, shortcuts, trial and error, or creative thinking.

A problem can be easier to solve when we define it clearly, break it into smaller steps, and check whether our solution actually works.

Intelligence means the ability to learn, reason, solve problems, adapt to new situations, and use knowledge. It can show up in school, work, relationships, creativity, and everyday life.

Creativity means making something new, useful, or meaningful. Creative thinking can help people solve problems in original ways.

Measures of intelligence, such as IQ tests, try to estimate certain thinking skills. These tests can be useful, but they do not measure every kind of ability or every person's full potential.

Intelligence is influenced by both biology and environment. Genes, brain development, education, health, culture, opportunity, and life experiences can all matter.

Motivation is what energizes and directs behavior. It helps explain why people start actions, keep going, and work toward goals.

Motivation can come from inside a person, like interest or personal values, or from outside, like rewards, grades, money, praise, or consequences.

Hunger and eating are affected by the body and the mind. Biology, hormones, habits, culture, stress, emotions, food availability, and social situations can all influence eating.

Eating is not only about needing energy. People may also eat because of comfort, routine, celebration, boredom, stress, or the people around them.

Problem solving means using thinking skills to find an answer or reach a goal. People may use step-by-step rules, shortcuts, trial and error, or creative thinking.

A problem can be easier to solve when we define it clearly, break it into smaller steps, and check whether our solution actually works.

Intelligence means the ability to learn, reason, solve problems, adapt to new situations, and use knowledge. It can show up in school, work, relationships, creativity, and everyday life.

Creativity means making something new, useful, or meaningful. Creative thinking can help people solve problems in original ways.

Measures of intelligence, such as IQ tests, try to estimate certain thinking skills. These tests can be useful, but they do not measure every kind of ability or every person's full potential.

Intelligence is influenced by both biology and environment. Genes, brain development, education, health, culture, opportunity, and life experiences can all matter.

Motivation is what energizes and directs behavior. It helps explain why people start actions, keep going, and work toward goals.

Motivation can come from inside a person, like interest or personal values, or from outside, like rewards, grades, money, praise, or consequences.

Hunger and eating are affected by the body and the mind. Biology, hormones, habits, culture, stress, emotions, food availability, and social situations can all influence eating.

Eating is not only about needing energy. People may also eat because of comfort, routine, celebration, boredom, stress, or the people around them.

Emotion includes feelings, body reactions, thoughts, and facial or behavioral expressions. Emotions can help people respond to danger, connect with others, and make decisions.

Emotions are shaped by both the body and the way we interpret situations. Two people can experience the same event differently because they understand it differently.

Easy-Read Notes: Memory, Thinking, Intelligence, Motivation, and Emotion

 

Memory is how the brain takes in, stores, and later uses information. It helps us learn, recognize people, remember experiences, and use knowledge.

Memory has three basic steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding means getting information in. Storage means keeping it. Retrieval means bringing it back when needed.

Different parts of the brain help with memory. The hippocampus is important for forming new memories, and the amygdala helps connect memories with emotions.

Memory is not perfect. People can forget, mix up details, remember things differently over time, or have trouble forming new memories after injury or illness.

Ways to improve memory include paying attention, practicing over time, connecting new ideas to things you already know, using reminders, sleeping well, and testing yourself.

Cognition means thinking. It includes attention, memory, language, problem solving, decision-making, imagination, and understanding information.

Language helps people communicate thoughts, feelings, needs, and ideas. It also helps us organize information and think about the past, present, and future.