What is Problem Solving?

 

Problem solving is the process of finding a way to reach a goal or overcome a challenge.

We solve problems every day.

Examples

• Finding your keys.
• Working out a maths question.
• Planning a journey.
• Fixing a computer problem.
• Deciding which supermarket to visit.

Good problem solving often involves using memory, attention, reasoning, and experience.

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Strategies for Solving Problems

Psychologists describe several common strategies.

1. Trial and Error

Try different solutions until one works.

Example

You forget the password to your email.

You try several passwords until you remember the correct one.

Advantages

• Simple.
• Can work well for easy problems.

Disadvantages

• Can take a long time.
• Not practical for difficult problems.

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2. Algorithm

An algorithm is a step-by-step method that guarantees the correct answer if followed properly.

Example

A recipe.

If you follow every step correctly, you should produce the same meal.

Another example is using long division in mathematics.

Advantages

• Very accurate.
• Reliable.

Disadvantages

• May take more time.

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3. Heuristic

A heuristic is a mental shortcut.

It helps people make decisions more quickly.

Example

You choose the supermarket you usually visit because it has worked well before.

You may not compare every possible option, but the shortcut often saves time.

Advantages

• Fast.
• Efficient.

Disadvantages

• Can sometimes lead to mistakes.

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Insight

Sometimes the answer suddenly appears.

This is called an insight or an "Aha!" moment.

Example

You struggle with a crossword puzzle.

After taking a break, the answer suddenly comes to you.

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Obstacles to Problem Solving

Sometimes our thinking gets in the way.

Functional Fixedness

This happens when we only think of an object in its usual way.

Example

A coin can tighten a screw if you do not have a screwdriver.

Someone with functional fixedness may never think to use the coin in this way.

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Mental Set

A mental set means using a solution that worked before, even when a new solution would work better.

Example

You always drive the same route to the shops.

One day the road is closed.

Instead of looking for another route, you keep trying the usual one.

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Confirmation Bias

People often look for information that supports what they already believe.

They may ignore evidence that disagrees with them.

Example

Someone believes one football team is always the best.

They remember the team's wins but forget its losses.

Confirmation bias can affect decision-making in everyday life.

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Decision Making

Decision making means choosing between different options.

Good decisions often involve:

• Gathering information.
• Comparing choices.
• Thinking about possible outcomes.
• Choosing the best option.

Sometimes people make decisions quickly using heuristics.

Other times, they carefully analyse each option.

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Problem Solving and Memory

Problem solving depends on memory.

We often:

• Remember similar situations.
• Recall facts we have learned.
• Apply previous experiences to new problems.

The more knowledge we have, the more strategies we can use.

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Links to Dyslexia, Autism, and Learning Disabilities

People solve problems in different ways.

Dyslexia

Someone with dyslexia may:

• need extra time to read instructions.
• benefit from coloured overlays or text-to-speech.
• understand the solution once information is presented clearly.

Autism

Some autistic people may:

• enjoy logical and systematic problem solving.
• notice details others miss.
• prefer clear routines and structured instructions.

Unexpected changes may require extra processing time.

Learning Disabilities

Helpful supports include:

• breaking tasks into smaller steps.
• using pictures and diagrams.
• providing written and verbal instructions.
• allowing additional time.

These adjustments improve access to learning without changing a person's intelligence or potential.

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Everyday Example

Imagine your washing machine stops working.

You might:

1. Check whether it is plugged in.
2. Look for an error message.
3. Read the instruction manual.
4. Search for advice online.
5. Call a repair technician if needed.

This combines trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and previous experience.

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Key Words

Word	Meaning
Problem solving	Finding a solution to a challenge.
Trial and error	Trying different solutions until one works.
Algorithm	A step-by-step method that leads to the correct answer.
Heuristic	A mental shortcut used to make decisions quickly.
Insight	A sudden understanding of the solution.
Functional fixedness	Seeing an object only in its usual use.
Mental set	Continuing to use an old solution when a new one is needed.
Confirmation bias	Looking for evidence that supports existing beliefs.

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Quick Quiz

1. Which strategy guarantees the correct answer if followed correctly?

A. Heuristic
B. Algorithm
C. Trial and error

Answer: B. Algorithm

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2. What is a heuristic?

A. A guaranteed solution
B. A mental shortcut
C. A memory problem

Answer: B. A mental shortcut

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3. What is functional fixedness?

A. Forgetting information
B. Only seeing an object in its usual use
C. Solving every problem the same way

Answer: B. Only seeing an object in its usual use

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4. An "Aha!" moment is called:

A. Confirmation bias
B. Insight
C. Mental set

Answer: B. Insight

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Study Tip

To remember the four main problem-solving strategies, think of TAHI:

• T = Trial and Error – Try different solutions.
• A = Algorithm – Follow a set of steps.
• H = Heuristic – Use a mental shortcut.
• I = Insight – Suddenly see the answer.

This simple acronym can make it easier to recall the concepts when studying for quizzes or assignments.

Language – Easy Read Notes

 

What is Language?

Language is a system people use to communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings, and information.

Language can be:

• 🗣️ Spoken language
• ✋ Sign language
• ✍️ Written language

Not all communication is language. For example:

• A dog wagging its tail communicates something.
• A baby crying communicates a need.
• But human language uses words and rules to share complex ideas.

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The Parts of Language

Language has several important parts:

1. Lexicon (Vocabulary)

Lexicon = all the words in a language.

Example:

The English lexicon includes words like:

• dog
• happy
• run
• computer

A person needs to know words before they can communicate complex ideas.

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2. Grammar

Grammar = the rules for putting words together.

Grammar helps us make sentences that have meaning.

Example:

✅ "The dog chased the ball."

❌ "Dog ball chased the."

The words are the same, but the order changes the meaning.

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Small Building Blocks of Language

Phonemes

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound.

Examples:

• "cat" has three sounds:
  • /c/
  • /a/
  • /t/

Changing one sound can change the meaning:

• cat
• hat

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Morphemes

A morpheme is the smallest part of language that has meaning.

Examples:

Dog = one morpheme

Dogs = two morphemes:

• dog
• s (means more than one)

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Semantics

Semantics = meaning of words and sentences.

Example:

"The bank is near the river."

"The bank is where I keep my money."

The word bank has different meanings depending on context.

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Syntax

Syntax = the order of words in sentences.

Example:

"The boy kicked the ball."

"The ball kicked the boy."

The same words have a different meaning because the order changed.

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How Children Learn Language

Children usually learn language naturally without formal lessons.

Psychologists have different ideas about how this happens.

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Skinner: Learning Through Reinforcement

B. F. Skinner believed children learn language through:

• imitation
• rewards
• reinforcement

Example:

A child says "milk."

A parent gives milk.

The child learns that saying "milk" gets a result.

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Chomsky: Biological Ability

Noam Chomsky argued that humans are born with a natural ability to learn language.

He suggested the brain is prepared for language learning.

Evidence:

• Children learn language quickly.
• Children across different cultures follow similar stages.
• Children create sentences they have never heard before.

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Stages of Language Development

Age	Development
0–3 months	Crying and reflexive communication
3–8 months	Sounds and interest in people
8–13 months	Intentional communication
12–18 months	First words
18–24 months	Two-word sentences
2–3 years	Longer sentences
3–5 years	Conversations and complex sentences

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The Babbling Stage

Babies practise sounds:

"ba-ba-ba"

They are learning how their voice works.

Interestingly, babies exposed to sign language also show a type of hand babbling where they practise movements used in signing.

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Overgeneralisation

Children often learn rules before exceptions.

Example:

A child learns:

• cat → cats
• dog → dogs

Then they may say:

• mouse → mouses ❌
• goose → gooses ❌

This shows the child understands the rule but has not learned the exceptions yet.

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Language and Thinking

A big psychology question:

Does language affect how we think?

The idea that language influences thought is called:

Linguistic Relativity

The researchers Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf suggested language can influence how people understand the world.

Example:

Some languages have many words for things that may only have one word in English.

However, modern psychologists believe language influences thinking but does not completely control it.

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Link to Dyslexia, Autism, and Learning Disabilities

This section connects strongly with your disability awareness work.

Language difficulties can involve:

Dyslexia

May affect:

• recognising sounds in words (phonological awareness)
• reading fluency
• spelling

Autism

Some autistic people may experience differences in:

• social communication
• understanding implied meanings
• interpreting tone or sarcasm

Learning disabilities

Some people may need:

• Easy Read information
• pictures and symbols
• extra processing time
• alternative communication methods

Communication support is not about lowering expectations; it is about making information accessible.

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Quick Quiz

1. What is the lexicon?

A) Rules for sentences
B) Vocabulary of a language
C) Sounds in language

Answer: B

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2. What does syntax mean?

A) Word order
B) Word meaning
C) Sound production

Answer: A

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3. Who suggested humans have a biological ability to learn language?

A) Skinner
B) Chomsky
C) Freud

Answer: B

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4. A child saying "goed" instead of "went" shows:

A) Forgetting language
B) Overgeneralisation
C) Lack of intelligence

Answer: B

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This chapter also links nicely with your earlier discussions about memory and semantic encoding, because language gives us a way to organise knowledge, create concepts, and store information in long-term memory. 

What is cognition?

 

Cognition means thinking.

It includes all the mental activities your brain uses every day, such as:

• 🧠 Thinking
• 👀 Understanding
• 📚 Learning
• 💭 Remembering
• 🗣️ Using language
• 🤔 Solving problems
• ⚖️ Making decisions
• 📋 Planning

Your brain is always working, even when you do not notice it.

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Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the study of how people think.

Psychologists study:

• How people learn
• How people remember
• How people solve problems
• How emotions affect thinking
• Why different people think differently

They want to understand how the brain processes information.

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How Thinking Happens

Your brain receives information from your senses.

For example:

👀 Eyes → see a dog

👂 Ears → hear barking

🧠 Brain → compares it with memories

💭 You think:

"That's my neighbour's dog."

The brain combines:

• New information
• Old memories
• Feelings
• Past experiences

to help you understand the world.

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Concepts

A concept is a group or category of things that are alike.

Examples:

Concept	Includes
Fruit	Apples, bananas, oranges
Vehicle	Cars, buses, bikes
Furniture	Chairs, tables, sofas

Concepts help us organize information quickly.

Without concepts, we would have to learn every object as something completely new.

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Prototypes

A prototype is the best example of a concept.

Example:

Concept = Bird

Your prototype might be:

🐦 Robin

Someone else might think of:

🦅 Eagle

or

🐧 Penguin

There is no single correct answer.

Your experiences shape your prototype.

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Natural Concepts

Natural concepts develop through experience.

Examples:

• Dogs
• Trees
• Birds
• Fish
• Clouds

Nobody has to formally teach every example.

You learn them naturally as you grow up.

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Artificial Concepts

Artificial concepts have clear rules.

Examples:

• Triangle
• Square
• Even numbers
• Prime numbers

For example:

A triangle must have:

• 3 sides
• 3 corners

If it has four sides, it is not a triangle.

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Schemas (Schemata)

A schema is a mental framework.

It helps your brain know what usually happens.

Example:

Going to a restaurant:

1. Wait to be seated
2. Read the menu
3. Order food
4. Eat
5. Pay
6. Leave

You already know this routine because you have a restaurant schema.

Schemas help you understand situations quickly.

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Event Schemas

An event schema is your brain's expectation of how an event normally happens.

Example:

Using an elevator:

• Walk in
• Turn around
• Face the door
• Wait
• Walk out

Most people do this automatically.

Another example is checking your phone whenever it vibrates. That habit becomes an event schema.

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Why Cognition Is Important

Cognition helps you:

• Learn at school
• Remember information
• Make decisions
• Solve problems
• Understand conversations
• Plan your day
• Recognize people
• Understand language

Without cognition, everyday life would be much more difficult.

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Key Words to Remember

Word	Meaning
Cognition	Mental processes such as thinking, learning and remembering
Cognitive Psychology	Study of how people think
Concept	A category or group of similar things
Prototype	The best example of a concept
Natural Concept	Learned through everyday experience
Artificial Concept	Defined by specific rules
Schema	A mental framework that organizes knowledge
Event Schema	Knowledge of how an event usually happens

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Quick Quiz

1. What does cognition mean?
   • A. Sleeping
   • B. Thinking and mental processes
   • C. Walking
2. What is a concept?
3. What is a prototype?
4. Which type of concept has strict rules?
   • A. Natural
   • B. Artificial
5. What is a schema?

Answers

1. B
2. A group or category of similar things.
3. The best example of a concept.
4. B – Artificial
5. A mental framework that helps organize knowledge and understand familiar situations.

Response 1

 

This is actually a very useful section to keep, because it gives you evidence-based study strategies from the psychology chapter itself. As I was reading it, I noticed that several of the techniques match things you've already told me help you.

The ones that seem especially relevant for you

1. Use the self-reference effect

The chapter says that material is remembered better when it is connected to your own life.

You've already been doing this naturally:

• linking memory theories to your experiences in class,

• thinking about how dyslexia affects encoding and note-taking,

• connecting psychology concepts to your epilepsy, autism, and support experiences.

That is exactly what the textbook means by making learning personally meaningful.

2. Use distributed practice (little and often)

This may be one of the most important tips for you.

Instead of trying to read a whole module in one sitting:

Try:

• 20–30 minutes reading,

• a short break,

• reviewing later the same day,

• and again a day or two later.

That helps memory consolidate and reduces overload.

3. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse

The chapter recommends reviewing over time.

For example:

Monday

Read Module 1 section.

Tuesday

Read Module 2 section.

Wednesday

Go back and explain Module 1 in your own words.

Thursday

Do a quiz or make a few questions from Module 2.

That kind of spacing is often easier than trying to remember everything at once.

4. Index cards instead of highlighting

This is a good suggestion from the chapter.

For psychology, you could make simple cards such as:

Front:

What is encoding?

Back:

The process of getting information into memory.

Then keep practicing the ones that are difficult.

5. Reduce interference

This stood out because you mentioned classroom noise making it hard to take in information.

Studying:

• in a quieter place,

• with fewer distractions,

• and with one task at a time

can help because your attention is not being pulled in several directions.

6. Mnemonics

You already use examples and stories, which are a form of mnemonic.

For memory stages, many students remember:

E

Encoding

S

Storage

R

Retrieval

ESR = Encode, Store, Retrieve

Little memory hooks like that can make recall easier.

One thing I would add for you specifically

Because of your dyslexia, I think reading and then explaining aloud in your own words may be more powerful than repeatedly rereading the same paragraph.

For example:

Read one short section.

Close the page.

Tell yourself (or your mum or coach):

“This section is saying that sleep helps consolidate memories into long-term memory.”

That combines:

• elaborative rehearsal,

• self-reference,

• retrieval practice,

• and spaced review.

And honestly, the fact that you copied and read this section carefully tells me something important: you're already studying the course material actively rather than just clicking through pages. That's usually a much better sign than simply rushing through modules without thinking about them.

Response 2

This is actually a very useful section to have found, because it explains how the course expects students to study, and many of the ideas fit the way you have already been learning through our conversations.

The important part for you

The chapter is saying that understanding and connecting ideas is better than just rereading them.

For example:

• Elaborative rehearsal = explain the idea in your own words.

• Self-reference effect = connect the idea to your own life.

• Distributed practice = study a little at a time.

• Rehearsal = review regularly.

• Mnemonics = use memory tricks.

You're already doing several of these

When you told me about:

• the classroom where the whiteboard was wiped before you finished writing,

• having a support tutor take notes,

• your own experiences with memory and learning,

you were using self-reference and elaborative rehearsal. You were taking the psychology and linking it to your real life.

That is often much stronger for memory than simply highlighting a paragraph.

The part I think is especially important for you

Use distributed practice: Study across time in short durations rather than trying to cram it all in at once.

Because you have described becoming overloaded when there is too much information at once, short, regular sessions are likely to work better than long sessions.

For example:

20-minute study block

Repeat later in the day if needed

• Read one section.

• Write 2–3 key points in your own words.

• Take a short break.

• Come back later and test yourself rather than rereading.

A dyslexia-friendly version of the chapter

What helps memory?

• Use your own words.

• Connect it to your life.

• Study a little every day.

• Test yourself.

• Study in a quiet place.

• Exercise and sleep help memory.

• Use memory tricks.

About the course site

I also think this discovery supports your concern. You found study advice, discussions, examples, and assignments by exploring links, rather than being clearly guided through them.

So when you meet your coach, I would ask her to help you create a simple course map, such as:

Module 1

✓

Module 2

✓

Quiz 1

?

Discussion 1

?

Assignment 1

?

Submission page

?

Deadline

?

Once you have that checklist, the uncertainty should reduce a lot.

And honestly, finding this now is a good thing. It gives you the chance to check everything early, while you're only a couple of modules in, rather than discovering it near the end of the course.