Neo-Freudians – Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney

 

What are Neo-Freudians?

Neo-Freudians were psychologists who agreed with some of Freud's ideas but believed his theory focused too much on sexuality and unconscious conflict.

They believed personality is also shaped by:

• Family relationships
• Friends
• Society
• Culture
• Personal goals
• Lifelong development

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Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler believed that people are motivated by the desire to improve themselves and overcome challenges.

Key ideas

• Everyone experiences feelings of weakness or inferiority during childhood.
• These feelings can encourage people to work hard and succeed.
• Healthy people try to improve themselves in positive ways.

Inferiority complex

Some people become overwhelmed by feelings of not being good enough.

This is called an inferiority complex.

People with an inferiority complex may:

• Feel they can never succeed.
• Avoid challenges.
• Lack confidence.

Compensation

People often work to overcome weaknesses by developing strengths.

For example:

• Someone who struggled at school may work very hard and become a successful teacher.
• A physically small person may become an excellent athlete.

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Carl Jung

Carl Jung believed that people share unconscious memories inherited from their ancestors.

Collective unconscious

The collective unconscious is a shared store of memories, ideas, and experiences that all humans inherit.

These are not learned from experience but are thought to be passed down across generations.

Archetypes

Within the collective unconscious are archetypes.

Archetypes are universal patterns or symbols found across cultures.

Examples include:

• The Hero
• The Mother
• The Wise Old Person
• The Child

These appear in:

• Stories
• Myths
• Dreams
• Films
• Religions

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Karen Horney

Karen Horney believed social relationships and culture are more important than Freud suggested.

Basic anxiety

Children need:

• Love
• Safety
• Acceptance

If these needs are not met, they may develop basic anxiety, which is a deep feeling of insecurity.

Healthy relationships

Horney believed supportive relationships help people:

• Build confidence.
• Feel secure.
• Develop healthy personalities.

She also disagreed with Freud's ideas about women, arguing that social and cultural experiences influence personality more than biological differences.

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Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson believed personality develops throughout life—not just in childhood.

Psychosocial development

Erikson created eight stages of psychosocial development.

At each stage, people face a challenge or conflict.

Successfully resolving each challenge helps build a healthy personality.

Life Stage	Main Challenge
Infancy	Trust vs. Mistrust
Early Childhood	Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Preschool	Initiative vs. Guilt
School Age	Industry vs. Inferiority
Adolescence	Identity vs. Role Confusion
Young Adulthood	Intimacy vs. Isolation
Middle Adulthood	Generativity vs. Stagnation
Older Adulthood	Integrity vs. Despair

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Comparing Freud and the Neo-Freudians

Freud	Neo-Freudians
Focused on unconscious drives and psychosexual development.	Focused more on social relationships and culture.
Believed personality is mostly formed in early childhood.	Many believed personality continues to develop across the lifespan.
Emphasised biological instincts.	Emphasised personal growth, goals, relationships, and society.

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Key Points to Remember

• Neo-Freudians built on Freud's ideas but expanded them.
• Adler believed people strive to overcome feelings of inferiority.
• Jung proposed the collective unconscious and archetypes.
• Horney emphasised the importance of supportive relationships and challenged Freud's views about women.
• Erikson developed the eight stages of psychosocial development, showing that personality develops throughout life.
• Social experiences, relationships, and culture all play important roles in shaping personality. OpenStax Psychology 2e – 11.3 Neo-Freudians: Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney

What Is Stress?

 

What is stress?

• Stress is the body's and mind's response to situations that feel difficult, challenging, or threatening.
• Different people react differently to the same situation because everyone thinks about events in their own way.
• A situation that is stressful for one person may not be stressful for another.

Stressors

A stressor is anything that causes stress.

Examples include:

• Exams
• Money worries
• Illness
• Moving home
• Family problems
• Losing a job
• Relationship difficulties

How stressful these events feel depends on how we think about them and whether we believe we can cope.

Good stress and bad stress

There are two main types of stress:

Eustress (Good Stress)

• Helps motivate us.
• Improves concentration.
• Can improve performance.
• Examples:
  • Preparing for an exam.
  • Starting a new job.
  • Playing in a sports competition.

Distress (Bad Stress)

• Happens when stress becomes too much.
• Can make us feel overwhelmed.
• May affect our physical and mental health.
• Can reduce our ability to think clearly or perform well.

Fight-or-flight response

Psychologist Walter Cannon discovered the fight-or-flight response.

When we face danger or stress:

• Heart beats faster.
• Breathing speeds up.
• Muscles tighten.
• Pupils become larger.
• Sweating increases.
• The body prepares to fight the danger or escape from it.

This response helps protect us during emergencies.

Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye explained that the body responds to long-term stress in three stages.

Stage	What happens
1. Alarm	The body recognises the stressor and activates the fight-or-flight response.
2. Resistance	The body tries to adapt and cope with the ongoing stress.
3. Exhaustion	If stress continues for too long, the body's energy becomes depleted, increasing the risk of illness.

Stress hormones

Stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, causing the adrenal glands to release hormones such as:

• Adrenaline (epinephrine) – increases heart rate and energy.
• Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) – increases alertness.
• Cortisol – helps the body respond to stress.

Short bursts of cortisol are helpful, but long-term high levels can weaken the immune system and increase the risk of physical and mental health problems.

Health psychology

Health psychology is the study of how thoughts, emotions, behaviour, and stress affect physical health and illness.

Health psychologists study:

• Healthy lifestyles
• Stress management
• Preventing disease
• How psychological factors influence health outcomes.

Key Points to Remember

• Stress is how we respond to demanding or threatening situations.
• A stressor is something that causes stress.
• Everyone experiences stress differently.
• Eustress is positive and motivating.
• Distress is harmful when stress becomes excessive.
• The fight-or-flight response prepares the body for danger.
• Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome has three stages: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion.
• Long-term stress can damage both physical and mental health.
• Health psychology studies the connection between stress, behaviour, and health. 

Historical Context of Freud's Theory

 

Sigmund Freud developed his psychoanalytic theory in Vienna during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During this period, society had strict moral values, especially regarding sexuality, family life, and acceptable behaviour. Mental illness was not well understood, and many people with psychological difficulties were treated unfairly or placed in institutions rather than receiving effective care.

This period followed the Industrial Revolution, when many families across Europe experienced poverty, overcrowded housing, poor sanitation, and difficult working conditions. These social issues were also highlighted in the novels of Charles Dickens, who described the harsh realities of Victorian life, particularly for children and disadvantaged families. Although Dickens was a novelist rather than a psychologist, his work illustrates the difficult environments that many people experienced during the nineteenth century.

The social and cultural conditions of the time influenced Freud's thinking. He believed that people's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours could be shaped by early childhood experiences and by unconscious conflicts that developed within a society where discussing sexuality and emotional problems was often considered unacceptable.

Dickens was writing mainly during the Victorian era (1837–1901), while Freud developed psychoanalysis in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Although they approached human suffering from very different perspectives—Dickens through literature and social commentary, Freud through psychology—they both reflected societies where poverty, overcrowding, poor housing, child labour, and inequality were widespread.

Today, psychologists recognise that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) extend beyond abuse or neglect. Growing up with homelessness, housing insecurity, extreme poverty, food insecurity, or living in unsafe neighbourhoods can also have lasting effects on development and mental health. These experiences can influence:

• Emotional wellbeing and self-esteem.
• Stress responses and anxiety.
• Memory and learning.
• Trust in other people and relationships.
• Physical health later in life.

For example, a child who frequently moves between temporary accommodation or experiences homelessness may develop chronic stress. The stress itself—not simply the lack of a permanent home—can affect how memories are formed, how safe the world feels, and how the brain develops.

Part 4 – Other Viable Options for Assessment

 

According to Carl Jung's theory, personality is based on two attitudes (introversion and extraversion) and four psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. Jung believed these preferences help explain how people perceive the world and make decisions. His theory became the foundation for later personality assessments, including the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). However, Jung also warned that his typology was intended as a way of understanding psychological differences rather than placing people into fixed categories.

Although I found the Jung personality assessment interesting, I believe the Big Five Personality Traits (Five-Factor Model) is a more useful assessment. Unlike typology tests, the Big Five measures personality on five continuous dimensions—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism—rather than assigning people to one personality type. This recognises that personality exists on a spectrum and can vary in different situations. The Big Five also has stronger scientific evidence supporting its reliability and validity than Jungian typology or MBTI-style assessments. Therefore, I believe it provides a more balanced and evidence-based understanding of personality.

Typology is a way of grouping people according to their personality characteristics, behaviours, and preferences. Instead of measuring personality on a scale, typology places people into different categories based on common patterns. These categories often include opposite preferences, such as introversion or extraversion, to explain how people naturally think, make decisions, and interact with others.

Typology is based on the idea that people have different but consistent ways of understanding the world and responding to situations. By recognising these patterns, personality types can help people gain a better understanding of themselves and others.

The concept of personality types dates back to ancient times. Early philosophers and physicians, including Plato and Galen, believed that people's behaviour and temperament could be grouped into different categories. These early ideas later influenced modern personality theories, including Carl Jung's theory of psychological types.

Today, personality typology is often used for personal development, career guidance, teamwork, and improving communication. Although typology can provide useful insights into behaviour and preferences, it should be viewed as a guide rather than a complete description of an individual, as personality is influenced by life experiences and can change over time.

What Is Personality?

 

Personality is the unique and long-lasting pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that makes each person an individual. It explains why people respond differently to the same situations. According to OpenStax Psychology 2e, personality consists of "long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways." Although personality is generally stable throughout life, it can gradually change through life experiences, learning, and personal growth.

The Three Main Parts of Personality

Thoughts

Your thoughts include your beliefs, opinions, attitudes, values, and the way you understand the world around you.

Feelings

Feelings are your typical emotional responses to different situations, such as happiness, sadness, excitement, fear, or frustration.

Behaviours

Behaviours are the actions, habits, and ways you interact with other people and your environment.

The Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

One of the most widely accepted scientific models of personality is the Big Five Personality Traits, remembered by the acronym OCEAN.

• Openness – Curious, imaginative, creative, and willing to try new experiences.

• Conscientiousness – Organised, responsible, dependable, and goal-oriented.

• Extraversion – Outgoing, energetic, sociable, and enjoys being around others.

• Agreeableness – Kind, caring, cooperative, trusting, and empathetic.

• Neuroticism – The tendency to experience stress, worry, anxiety, or other negative emotions more easily.

Why Personality Matters

Personality influences many areas of daily life, including:

• How we communicate with others.

• How we solve problems and make decisions.

• How we cope with stress.

• Our relationships.

• Our learning and working styles.

• Our emotional wellbeing.

Although personality is relatively stable, research shows it can develop and change gradually through experiences, education, relationships, and personal growth.

Summary

Personality is the unique combination of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that makes each individual different. Modern psychology often describes personality using the Big Five (OCEAN) model, which measures openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Understanding personality helps explain why people think, feel, and behave differently and supports better self-awareness and understanding of others.

Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828)

 

Franz Joseph Gall was a German physician, anatomist, and early brain researcher. He is best known for developing phrenology, a theory that claimed a person's personality and abilities could be determined by the shape of their skull. Today, phrenology is considered a pseudoscience, meaning it is not supported by scientific evidence. However, Gall also made important contributions to the study of the brain that influenced modern neuroscience.

Gall's Main Ideas

Gall believed that:

• The brain is the organ responsible for thoughts, emotions, and behaviour.
• Different parts of the brain have different functions.
• If one part of the brain was highly developed, it would create a bump on the skull.
• By examining the bumps on a person's head, it was possible to identify their personality, talents, and character.

He believed there were many different mental "faculties," including language, memory, musical ability, kindness, and even tendencies such as pride or caution.

What Was Phrenology?

Phrenology was the practice of examining the shape and bumps of the skull to predict:

• Personality
• Intelligence
• Talents
• Behaviour

Gall believed the skull reflected the size of different brain regions underneath it.

Scientists later discovered that the shape of the skull does not accurately reflect the shape or function of the brain, so phrenology was rejected as a scientific theory.

Gall's Real Contributions

Although phrenology was incorrect, Gall introduced several ideas that were ahead of his time.

He helped promote the idea that:

• Different parts of the brain perform different functions (known today as localisation of function).
• Careful brain dissection could improve understanding of anatomy.
• Studying the brain scientifically could help explain behaviour.

These ideas became the foundation of later neuroscience. Scientists such as Paul Broca later confirmed that specific brain areas are involved in particular functions, such as speech.

Why Is Gall Important Today?

Modern psychologists no longer use phrenology because it is inaccurate.

However, Gall is still remembered because he:

• Helped encourage scientific study of the brain.
• Suggested that different brain regions have specialised jobs.
• Improved methods for studying brain anatomy.
• Influenced later neuroscientists who discovered how the brain really works.

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Easy Read Summary

• 👨‍⚕️ Franz Joseph Gall was a German doctor and brain scientist.
• 🧠 He believed different parts of the brain controlled different abilities.
• 👤 He thought bumps on the skull showed a person's personality.
• ❌ This idea became known as phrenology and has been proven wrong.
• ✅ His idea that different brain areas have different functions helped inspire modern neuroscience.
• 📚 Gall is remembered for helping scientists begin to understand how the brain works.

For your course, Kiddle is a perfectly reasonable starting point because it presents the concepts in accessible language. I would simply pair it with a university-level source (such as OpenStax Psychology or Simply Psychology) when writing assignments so you have both an easy-to-read explanation and an academic reference.

Galen (129–216 CE)

 

Galen was a Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher who worked during the Roman Empire. He is considered one of the most important figures in the history of medicine. Building on the work of Hippocrates, Galen helped shape medical knowledge for over 1,000 years.

Key Contributions

Anatomy and Physiology

• Galen studied the structure and function of the body by dissecting animals, especially monkeys and pigs, because human dissection was generally not permitted.
• His work greatly improved understanding of anatomy and physiology at the time.
• However, because he relied on animal dissections, some of his ideas about the human body were later shown to be incorrect.

Medical Writing

• Galen wrote hundreds of medical books and essays covering anatomy, disease, diagnosis, treatment, surgery, and pharmacology.
• His writings became the main medical textbooks in Europe and the Middle East for many centuries.
• Doctors and medical students studied his work until scientific discoveries in the 16th and 17th centuries challenged many of his theories.

Observation and Experience

• Galen believed that physicians should carefully observe patients, record symptoms, and learn through practical experience.
• He combined scientific observation with philosophical thought, believing that medicine should be grounded in reason as well as experience.

Theory of the Four Humors

Like Hippocrates, Galen believed that good health depended on maintaining a balance between the four humors:

• 🩸 Blood – associated with being cheerful and energetic.
• 💛 Yellow bile – associated with anger and determination.
• 🖤 Black bile – associated with sadness and seriousness.
• 🤍 Phlegm – associated with calmness and slow reactions.

According to Galen, illness occurred when these humors became unbalanced. Treatments such as dietary changes, exercise, herbal medicines, or bloodletting were used to restore balance.

Legacy

Galen's influence lasted from the 2nd century CE until the 17th century. His work shaped medicine throughout the Roman Empire, the Islamic Golden Age, medieval Europe, and the Renaissance. Although many of his anatomical theories were eventually corrected through human dissection and scientific research, his emphasis on careful observation, medical ethics, and systematic study helped lay the foundations of modern medicine.

Easy Read Summary

• Galen was a Greek doctor who lived from 129–216 CE.
• He worked in the Roman Empire.
• He built on the ideas of Hippocrates.
• He studied anatomy by dissecting animals.
• He wrote many important medical books.
• He believed doctors should learn through observation and experience.
• He supported the Four Humors Theory, believing good health depended on keeping the body's humors in balance.
• His ideas influenced medicine for over 1,000 years, until newer scientific discoveries replaced many of his theories.

Key Fact: Although some of Galen's ideas were later proven incorrect, his commitment to careful observation, learning, and recording medical knowledge made him one of the most influential physicians in history.