Sunday, 12 July 2026

Memory (Easy Read)

Memory helps us learn, remember, and use information.

Memory has three main steps:

1. Encoding

Encoding is taking in new information.
Your brain changes information into a form it can store.
Paying attention helps encoding.

Example: Listening carefully in class.

2. Storage

Storage means keeping information in your memory.
Information may stay for a short time or a long time.

3. Retrieval

Retrieval means bringing stored information back into your mind.
Clues and reminders can make remembering easier.

Example: A familiar smell reminds you of your grandmother's house.

The Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory

Holds information from your senses.
Lasts only about 3 to 4 seconds.
Helps your brain decide what is important.

Example: Seeing a flash of lightning or hearing a loud bang.

Short-Term (Working) Memory

Holds information you are using right now.
Usually stores about 7 pieces of information (plus or minus 2).
Lasts about 20 seconds unless you repeat or use the information.

Example: Remembering a phone number long enough to dial it.

Long-Term Memory

Stores information for days, months, or even a lifetime.
It has a very large storage capacity.
Important memories are often stored here.

Example: Remembering your first day at school.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Procedural Memory (Implicit Memory)

Helps you remember how to do things.
You do not have to think about each step.
It controls skills and habits.

Examples

Riding a bicycle
Driving a car
Tying your shoes
Typing on a keyboard

Declarative Memory (Explicit Memory)

Stores information you can think about and explain.
Includes facts and personal experiences.

There are two types.

Semantic Memory

Stores facts and general knowledge.

Examples

T
The
capital of France is Paris.
Knowing that water freezes at 0°C (32°F).

Episodic Memory

Stores personal experiences.
Includes memories of places and events.

Examples

Your seventh birthday.
Your first day at college.
A family holiday.

Parts of the Brain and Memory

Hippocampus

Helps make new long-term memories.
Very important for learning facts and experiences.

Prefrontal Cortex

Helps with thinking, planning, attention, and working memory.

Amygdala

Processes emotions.
Helps emotional events become easier to remember.

Amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia

A person cannot make new long-term memories after a brain injury or illness.
Older memories are often still remembered.

Example: A person remembers childhood but cannot remember what happened yesterday.

Retrograde Amnesia

A person loses memories from before a brain injury.
New memories may still be formed after recovery.

Example: A person cannot remember their wedding but can remember new events.

Memory Is Not Perfect

Each time we remember something, the memory can change.

Memories can be affected by:

emotions,
suggestions from other people,
new information,
the passage of time.

This is called memory reconstruction.

Eyewitness Memory

Eyewitness memories are not always accurate.

People may remember things incorrectly because of:

leading questions,
misleading information,
focusing on a weapon instead of other details,
stress during the event.

This is why eyewitness evidence should be treated carefully.

Common Memory Errors

People may experience:

Transience – memories fade over time.
Absent-mindedness – forgetting because you were not paying attention.
Blocking – knowing something but not being able to remember it at that moment.
Misattribution – remembering information but linking it to the wrong source.
Suggestibility – other people's ideas change your memory.
Bias – beliefs and feelings influence memories.
Persistence – unwanted memories keep coming back.

Ways to Improve Memory

You can improve memory by:

Paying close attention.
Understanding information instead of just repeating it.
Grouping information into smaller chunks (chunking).
Using pictures and mental images.
Linking new information to stories or things you already know.
Practising active recall by testing yourself.
Reviewing information regularly using spaced repetition.
Getting enough sleep, eating a healthy diet, and exercising.

Key Points

Encoding = Taking in information.
Storage = Keeping information.
Retrieval = Remembering information.
Sensory memory lasts only a few seconds.
Working memory holds information you are using now.
Long-term memory stores information for a long time.
Procedural memory stores skills like riding a bike.
Semantic memory stores facts.
Episodic memory stores personal experiences.
The hippocampus helps create new long-term memories.
The amygdala links memories with emotions.
Memory can change over time and is not always completely accurate.

Memory Formation and Forgetting (Easy Read)

How Memories Are Made

Our memory works in three main steps.

1. Encoding

Encoding is the first step of memory.
Your brain takes in information from your senses.
You need to pay attention for information to be encoded well.
The brain changes the information into a form it can store.

Example: Listening carefully to a teacher helps your brain begin to remember the lesson.

2. Storage

Storage is where the brain keeps information.
Some memories stay for only a short time.
Other memories move into long-term memory and can last for many years.
Important or meaningful information is often stored better.

Example: You may remember your birthday from many years ago because it is important to you.

3. Retrieval

Retrieval means remembering or bringing information back into your mind.
It is easier to remember things when you have clues or reminders.
Good encoding and storage make retrieval easier.

Example: Smelling a favourite meal may remind you of your childhood.

Memory Reconstruction

Memory is not like watching a video recording.

Each time we remember something:

the memory is rebuilt,
it can be affected by our feelings,
new information can change it,
some details may become inaccurate.

This is why two people can remember the same event differently.

Forgetting

Forgetting is a normal part of life.

There are several reasons why we forget:

Decay

Memories can become weaker over time if they are not used.

Example: Forgetting a phone number you have not used for years.

Interference

New information can make it harder to remember older information.
Older information can also make it harder to learn something new.

Example: Learning a new password and accidentally typing your old one.

Retrieval Failure

The memory is still in your brain, but you cannot find it at that moment.
A clue or reminder may help you remember later.

Example: You cannot remember someone's name until someone mentions where you met them.

Key Points

Encoding = Taking in new information.
Storage = Keeping information in memory.
Retrieval = Remembering stored information.
Memory reconstruction = Memories can change each time we remember them.
Forgetting is normal and can happen because of decay, interference, or retrieval failure.

Saturday, 11 July 2026

Easy Read Summary What is intelligence?

Intelligence is the ability to:

Learn new information.
Understand ideas.
Solve problems.
Adapt to new situations.

Psychologists do not all agree on one definition of intelligence. Different theories explain it in different ways.

Spearman's Theory (General Intelligence)

Charles Spearman believed people have one general intelligence called g.

This general ability affects how well people perform on many mental tasks.
Someone who does well in one academic subject may also do well in others because of this general intelligence.

Cattell's Theory

Raymond Cattell said intelligence has two parts.

Fluid Intelligence

This is your ability to:

Think logically.
Solve new problems.
Adapt to unfamiliar situations.

Example:
Finding a different route home because a road is closed.

Crystallized Intelligence

This is the knowledge you have learned over time.

Example:
Knowing multiplication tables or remembering historical facts.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

This is the part that connects most closely to your own ideas.

Robert Sternberg believed intelligence has three types.

Type	What it means	Example
Analytical	Thinking, analysing, solving academic problems	Solving a maths question
Creative	Inventing new ideas and thinking outside the box	Designing a new invention
Practical	Solving everyday problems ("street smarts")	Fixing a broken appliance or dealing with everyday situations

This links with your theory

Earlier you said:

Some people solve problems with their brains, some with their bodies, and some with both.

That isn't exactly Sternberg's theory, but there is a similarity. Sternberg argues that intelligence is more than just academic ability. Practical and creative skills are also important.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner believed people have different kinds of intelligence instead of just one.

Examples include:

Language
Logical-mathematical
Musical
Bodily-kinesthetic (using the body skilfully)
Spatial
Interpersonal (understanding other people)
Intrapersonal (understanding yourself)
Naturalistic (understanding nature)

This matches something you said

You mentioned:

Someone may be good at helping people with emotional problems but not very good at maths.

Gardner's theory would support this idea because he believed people can have strengths in different areas. However, it's worth noting that Gardner's theory remains influential in education but has been criticized by many psychologists for lacking strong empirical evidence.

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence means being able to:

Understand your own emotions.
Recognise other people's emotions.
Show empathy.
Build healthy relationships.
Manage your emotions appropriately.

Some researchers believe emotional intelligence is very important for success, although there is ongoing debate about how it should be defined and measured.

Creativity

Creativity means:

Producing new ideas.
Finding original solutions.
Thinking in different ways.

Creative people often:

Learn a lot about a topic.
Keep practising.
Ask other people for ideas.
Take sensible risks.
Look at problems from different angles.

Two Types of Thinking

Divergent Thinking

Thinking of many possible answers.

Example:
"How many different uses can you think of for a paper clip?"

Convergent Thinking

Finding one correct answer.

Example:
"What is 7 × 8?"

Connecting this to your own idea

One thing you've consistently pointed out is that people have different strengths and weaknesses. OpenStax presents several theories that support the idea that intelligence is not simply "being good at maths" or "having a high IQ." Different theories recognise different kinds of abilities, such as practical problem solving, creativity, social understanding, and learned knowledge.

I would only make one small adjustment to your wording. Rather than saying some people use their brains and others use their bodies, psychology would usually say that everyone uses their brain, but they rely on different combinations of cognitive, physical, social, emotional, and practical skills. For example, a carpenter, a counsellor, a musician, and a mathematician all use their brains—but they apply different abilities to solve different kinds of problems.

So your idea could be refined like this:

Every person has unique strengths and weaknesses. Intelligence is not just one ability. People solve problems in different ways by using different combinations of analytical thinking, creativity, practical experience, emotional understanding, and physical skills. Good problem solving also includes recognising when another person's expertise is needed.

That statement is consistent with the broad themes in this OpenStax chapter while acknowledging that psychologists continue to debate exactly how intelligence should be defined and measured.

Every person has unique strengths and weaknesses. Intelligence is not just one ability. People solve problems in different ways by using different combinations of analytical thinking, creativity, practical experience, emotional understanding, and physical skills. Good problem-solving also includes recognising when another person's expertise is needed.

Different animal species have evolved different kinds of intelligence that help them survive in their environments. Rather than thinking of one animal as "the smartest," scientists usually consider what kinds of problems that species is adapted to solve.

Here are a few examples:

Chimpanzee – Excellent at using tools, solving problems, and learning from others.
Dolphin – Strong social intelligence, communication, and cooperation.
Elephant – Known for long-term memory, social bonds, and problem-solving.
Octopus – Can solve puzzles, escape enclosures, and learn through exploration.
Crow – Uses tools, plans ahead in some tasks, and solves complex problems.
Honey bee – Communicates the location of food to other bees using the "waggle dance."

These examples show that intelligence is not the same across all animals. Each species has developed abilities that suit its way of life.

This idea also connects to humans. Just as different animal species have different strengths, people also have different abilities. One person might be especially good at mathematics, another at music, another at caring for people, and another at building or repairing things. Those differences don't mean one individual is "better" overall—they mean they have different strengths.

A good way to summarise this is:

"Humans and other animals show intelligence in different ways. The abilities they develop help them solve the kinds of problems they face in their everyday lives."

That idea is consistent with what psychologists and biologists have found: intelligence is best understood in the context of the challenges an individual or species needs to solve, rather than by a single measure alone.

Understanding problem solving.

Mainly through thinking

Planning, analysing, calculating, remembering information, and reasoning through a solution.

Example: a mathematician, programmer, or strategist.

Mainly through physical action

Learning by doing, building, moving, testing, and adjusting.

Example: a carpenter, mechanic, athlete, or dancer.

Using both together

Combining planning with physical action.

Example: a surgeon, engineer, chef, or pilot.

Why your theory makes sense

Modern psychology recognises that problem solving is not only a mental activity.

For example:

Embodied cognition: our bodies can influence how we think.
Procedural learning: some skills are learned through repeated physical practice.
Cognitive problem solving: other problems rely more on memory, reasoning, and language.

So a person fixing a bicycle may solve the problem by handling the parts and testing them, while another person solving a crossword uses mainly mental reasoning.

A simple way to picture it: No one is equally skilled at every type of problem solving. People develop different strengths through a combination of their abilities, experiences, education, personality, and practice.

For example:

One person may be excellent at comforting someone upset but struggle with mathematics.
Another may be brilliant at engineering or computer programming but find it difficult to understand another person's emotions.
A nurse may be highly skilled at patient care but refer someone to a specialist for complex mental health treatment.
A counsellor may be able to support someone emotionally but refer them to a doctor if they suspect a medical condition.

Recognising your own limits is not a weakness—it is part of being responsible and professional. In many professions, knowing when to refer someone to another expert is considered good practice because it helps people receive the most appropriate support.

Your point also reflects the idea that everyone has strengths and weaknesses. Having strengths does not mean you never need help, and having weaknesses does not mean you have nothing to offer. Most people rely on others in areas where they have less knowledge or experience.

One small point I'd make is that emotional support isn't simply "using your brain less" than mathematics. Both involve the brain, but they draw on somewhat different skills. Helping someone emotionally often requires empathy, listening, communication, and judgement, while mathematics relies more heavily on numerical reasoning and abstract thinking. They're different kinds of abilities rather than one being "more brain-based" than the other.

I also notice a connection to the work you've told me about in the past. When you worked in advocacy and as a visiting lecturer, you weren't expected to solve every problem yourself. Part of the role was knowing your expertise, supporting people within that expertise, and helping them access other professionals when their needs went beyond it. That's a good example of recognising both strengths and professional boundaries.

So, if I were to turn your idea into a general principle, it might be:

Every person has unique strengths and weaknesses. We solve problems in different ways because we have different knowledge, skills, and experiences. A good problem solver not only uses their own strengths but also recognises when someone else's expertise is needed and refers to the right person when appropriate.

I think that's a balanced way of looking at problem solving because it values individual differences while also recognising that complex problems are often solved best through collaboration rather than by one person trying to do everything alone.

Thinking

Action

Problem Solving

Different people use different amounts of each.

Where this connects to your own experience

From what you have described in earlier conversations, this idea may explain why some tasks feel easier when you can do them practically rather than only read about them.

Many people with Dyslexia or Dyspraxia find that hands-on experience helps them understand and remember information more effectively.

A refined version of your theory

Strong psychology wording

"All people are problem solvers, but they solve problems in different ways. Some rely mainly on thinking and reasoning, some rely mainly on physical action and experience, and many use a combination of both. Effective problem solving often depends on matching the method to the person and the situation."

That is a strong insight, and it would actually make an interesting discussion point in your psychology assignment because it links cognition, learning, and practical experience together.

Easy Read: Problem Solving

Problem-solving means finding a way to address a challenge or problem. There are four main steps.

1. Identify the Problem

Work out what the problem is.
Understand what is causing the problem.
Make sure you focus on the real problem, not just the symptoms.

Example:
Your computer will not turn on. The real problem might be a flat battery, not the computer itself.

2. Generate Solutions

Think of different ways to solve the problem.
Brainstorm as many ideas as you can.
Do not worry if some ideas are not perfect.

Example:
You could charge the battery, check the power cable, or ask someone for help.

3. Evaluate the Options

Look at each possible solution.
Think about the advantages and disadvantages.
Choose the solution that is most likely to work.

Example:
Charging the battery is quick and easy, so you decide to try that first.

4. Implement the Solution

Put your chosen solution into action.
Check whether it has solved the problem.
If it does not work, try another solution.

Example:
After charging the battery, the computer turns on. The problem is solved.

Key Points

Identify the problem.
Think of possible solutions.
Choose the best solution.
Try the solution and check if it worked.

Good problem solving helps people make decisions, overcome challenges, and learn from their experiences.

Friday, 10 July 2026

What is Problem Solving?

Problem solving is the process of finding a way to reach a goal or overcome a challenge.

We solve problems every day.

Examples

Finding your keys.
Working out a maths question.
Planning a journey.
Fixing a computer problem.
Deciding which supermarket to visit.

Good problem solving often involves using memory, attention, reasoning, and experience.

Strategies for Solving Problems

Psychologists describe several common strategies.

1. Trial and Error

Try different solutions until one works.

Example

You forget the password to your email.

You try several passwords until you remember the correct one.

Advantages

Simple.
Can work well for easy problems.

Disadvantages

Can take a long time.
Not practical for difficult problems.

2. Algorithm

An algorithm is a step-by-step method that guarantees the correct answer if followed properly.

Example

A recipe.

If you follow every step correctly, you should produce the same meal.

Another example is using long division in mathematics.

Advantages

Very accurate.
Reliable.

Disadvantages

May take more time.

3. Heuristic

A heuristic is a mental shortcut.

It helps people make decisions more quickly.

Example

You choose the supermarket you usually visit because it has worked well before.

You may not compare every possible option, but the shortcut often saves time.

Advantages

Fast.
Efficient.

Disadvantages

Can sometimes lead to mistakes.

Insight

Sometimes the answer suddenly appears.

This is called an insight or an "Aha!" moment.

Example

You struggle with a crossword puzzle.

After taking a break, the answer suddenly comes to you.

Obstacles to Problem Solving

Sometimes our thinking gets in the way.

Functional Fixedness

This happens when we only think of an object in its usual way.

Example

A coin can tighten a screw if you do not have a screwdriver.

Someone with functional fixedness may never think to use the coin in this way.

Mental Set

A mental set means using a solution that worked before, even when a new solution would work better.

Example

You always drive the same route to the shops.

One day the road is closed.

Instead of looking for another route, you keep trying the usual one.

Confirmation Bias

People often look for information that supports what they already believe.

They may ignore evidence that disagrees with them.

Example

Someone believes one football team is always the best.

They remember the team's wins but forget its losses.

Confirmation bias can affect decision-making in everyday life.

Decision Making

Decision making means choosing between different options.

Good decisions often involve:

Gathering information.
Comparing choices.
Thinking about possible outcomes.
Choosing the best option.

Sometimes people make decisions quickly using heuristics.

Other times, they carefully analyse each option.

Problem Solving and Memory

Problem solving depends on memory.

We often:

Remember similar situations.
Recall facts we have learned.
Apply previous experiences to new problems.

The more knowledge we have, the more strategies we can use.

Links to Dyslexia, Autism, and Learning Disabilities

People solve problems in different ways.

Dyslexia

Someone with dyslexia may:

need extra time to read instructions.
benefit from coloured overlays or text-to-speech.
understand the solution once information is presented clearly.

Autism

Some autistic people may:

enjoy logical and systematic problem solving.
notice details others miss.
prefer clear routines and structured instructions.

Unexpected changes may require extra processing time.

Learning Disabilities

Helpful supports include:

breaking tasks into smaller steps.
using pictures and diagrams.
providing written and verbal instructions.
allowing additional time.

These adjustments improve access to learning without changing a person's intelligence or potential.

Everyday Example

Imagine your washing machine stops working.

You might:

Check whether it is plugged in.
Look for an error message.
Read the instruction manual.
Search for advice online.
Call a repair technician if needed.

This combines trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and previous experience.

Key Words

Word	Meaning
Problem solving	Finding a solution to a challenge.
Trial and error	Trying different solutions until one works.
Algorithm	A step-by-step method that leads to the correct answer.
Heuristic	A mental shortcut used to make decisions quickly.
Insight	A sudden understanding of the solution.
Functional fixedness	Seeing an object only in its usual use.
Mental set	Continuing to use an old solution when a new one is needed.
Confirmation bias	Looking for evidence that supports existing beliefs.

Quick Quiz

1. Which strategy guarantees the correct answer if followed correctly?

A. Heuristic
B. Algorithm
C. Trial and error

Answer: B. Algorithm

2. What is a heuristic?

A. A guaranteed solution
B. A mental shortcut
C. A memory problem

Answer: B. A mental shortcut

3. What is functional fixedness?

A. Forgetting information
B. Only seeing an object in its usual use
C. Solving every problem the same way

Answer: B. Only seeing an object in its usual use

4. An "Aha!" moment is called:

A. Confirmation bias
B. Insight
C. Mental set

Answer: B. Insight

Study Tip

To remember the four main problem-solving strategies, think of TAHI:

T = Trial and Error – Try different solutions.
A = Algorithm – Follow a set of steps.
H = Heuristic – Use a mental shortcut.
I = Insight – Suddenly see the answer.

This simple acronym can make it easier to recall the concepts when studying for quizzes or assignments.